January 2014

Kalami: Evaluation


Warning: preg_match() [function.preg-match]: Compilation failed: invalid range in character class at offset 4 in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 1384

Warning: preg_match_all() [function.preg-match-all]: Compilation failed: invalid range in character class at offset 4 in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 700

Warning: Invalid argument supplied for foreach() in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 707

Warning: preg_match_all() [function.preg-match-all]: Compilation failed: invalid range in character class at offset 4 in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 700

Warning: Invalid argument supplied for foreach() in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 707

It’s been a while now since the last post in my little series on Kalami, but I’ve finally polished the code for evaluating programmes as I wanted to. Overall, it’s not that different from the wellformed code of the previous post; in fact, the most challenging aspect is how to enumerate all guesses.

As earlier, we’re dealing with statements, conditions, and expressions. The first one is the tricky one, so to start off simple I’ll first look at the other two. The full source code is available in the evalwoa branch on GitHub.

 

Assuming bindings in environment env for all identifiers in an expression expr, it may be evaluated straight-forwardly by the following recursive function eval_expr:

let rec eval_expr env expr =
    match expr with

        ExprNumber(n) ->
            n

        | ExprVariable(id) ->
            List.assoc id env

        | ExprProduct(expr1, expr2) ->
            let val1 = eval_expr env expr1 in
            let val2 = eval_expr env expr2 in
            val1 * val2

        | ExprDivision(expr1, expr2) ->
            let val1 = eval_expr env expr1 in
            let val2 = eval_expr env expr2 in
            val1 / val2

        | ExprSum(expr1, expr2) ->
            let val1 = eval_expr env expr1 in
            let val2 = eval_expr env expr2 in
            val1 + val2

        | ExprSubtraction(expr1, expr2) ->
            let val1 = eval_expr env expr1 in
            let val2 = eval_expr env expr2 in
            val1 - val2

        | ExprPower(expr1, expr2) ->
            let val1 = eval_expr env expr1 in
            let val2 = eval_expr env expr2 in
            power val1 val2

Note first that since env is just a list of pairs binding identifiers to integers

let env = [ (id1, n1); (id2, n2); ... (idk, nk) ];;

we may extract the latter using built-in function List.assoc as in case ExprVariable. Next, note that there’s no built-in function for integer exponentiation, hence the power function used in case ExprPower is implemented in evaluation.ml as a tail recursive repeated squaring (initially it was using the naive approach, but since I did do my PhD in crypto, this was one of the small changes needed; see separate file power.ml for the various implementations).

 

Evaluating condition cnd is similar, with the small difference that for one reason or another (purist perhaps) I used the prefix notation for function invocation here:

let rec eval_cnd env cnd =
    match cnd with

        CndTrue ->
            true

        | CndFalse ->
            false

        | CndEqual(expr1, expr2) ->
            let val1 = eval_expr env expr1 in
            let val2 = eval_expr env expr2 in
            (=) val1 val2

        | CndLessthan(expr1, expr2) ->
            let val1 = eval_expr env expr1 in
            let val2 = eval_expr env expr2 in
            (<) val1 val2

        | CndNegation(cnd) ->
            let val1 = eval_cnd env cnd in
            (not) val1

        | CndOr(cnd1, cnd2) ->
            let val1 = eval_cnd env cnd1 in
            let val2 = eval_cnd env cnd2 in
            (||) val1 val2

        | CndAnd(cnd1, cnd2) ->
            let val1 = eval_cnd env cnd1 in
            let val2 = eval_cnd env cnd2 in
            (&&) val1 val2

 

For statement stmt it finally gets a bit more interesting. Cases StmtLet and StmtIf are straight-forward, as are StmtAccept and StmtReject which respectively return the current environment and None. However, for a guessing statement it’s a bit more involved. If the guess has an upper bound then we may just try all possibilities as in case StmtGuessLowerUpperBound below. But this will of course not work when no upper bound is specified since an inner guess will prevent outer guesses from ever increasing. As an example, consider programme:

guess x in
guess y in
if x == y+1 then accept
otherwise reject

which has solution [ ("x", 1); ("y", 0) ], yet if we first let x=0 and then use the strategy of enumerating all values for y then we’ll never make it back to incrementing x.

Instead, for a programme with n (unbounded) guesses, i.e. guesses without an upper bound, the simple strategy used here is to enumerate all n-arity integer tuples in an outer loop, and for each evaluate the main statement with a second environment guesses linking the tuples with the identifiers of the (unbounded) guesses. Statements may then be evaluated as follows, using an initial empty environment env for the main statement:

let rec eval_stmt env guesses stmt =
    match stmt with

        StmtLet(id, expr, stmt) ->
            let expr_value = eval_expr env expr in
            let env' = (id, expr_value) :: env in
            eval_stmt env' guesses stmt

        | StmtIf(cnd, stmt_true, stmt_false) ->
            let cnd_value = eval_cnd env cnd in
            if cnd_value then
                eval_stmt env guesses stmt_true
            else
                eval_stmt env guesses stmt_false

        | StmtGuess(id, stmt) ->
            let guess = List.assoc id guesses in
            let env' = (id, guess) :: env in
            eval_stmt env' guesses stmt

        | StmtGuessLowerBound(id, lower_bound_expr, stmt) ->
            let lower_bound = eval_expr env lower_bound_expr in
            let guess = List.assoc id guesses in
            if guess < lower_bound then
                  None
             else
                 let env' = (id, guess) :: env in
                 eval_stmt env' guesses stmt

        | StmtGuessLowerUpperBound(id, lb_expr, ub_expr, stmt) ->
            let lower_bound = eval_expr env lb_expr in
            let upper_bound = eval_expr env ub_expr in
            let rec helper guess =
                let env' = (id, guess) :: env in
                let result = eval_stmt env' guesses stmt in
                match result with
                    None ->
                        if guess < upper_bound then
                            helper (guess + 1)
                        else
                            None
                    | Some(_) ->
                        result
            in
            helper lower_bound

        | StmtAccept ->
            Some(env)

        | StmtReject ->
            None

where we see that in cases StmtGuess and StmtGuessLowerBound the guess performed in the outer enumeration is simply added to the environment.

The only thing missing is hence the outer enumeration. First we have a simple function collecting identifiers:

let rec get_unbounded_guesses stmt =
    match stmt with

        StmtLet(_, _, stmt) ->
            get_unbounded_guesses stmt

        | StmtIf(_, stmt_true, stmt_false) ->
            (get_unbounded_guesses stmt_true) 
            @ (get_unbounded_guesses stmt_false)

        | StmtGuess(id, stmt) ->
            id :: (get_unbounded_guesses stmt)

        | StmtGuessLowerBound(id, _, stmt) ->
            id :: (get_unbounded_guesses stmt)

        | StmtGuessLowerUpperBound(_, _, _, stmt) ->
            get_unbounded_guesses stmt

        | StmtAccept ->
            []

        | StmtReject ->
            []

Next is a projection function project arity number performing a one-to-one mapping of an integer into a integer tuple with the given arity (see also projection.ml). The code for this gets a bit messy so I won’t give it here, yet the main principle is to partition the digits in number such that for instance:

# project 3 123456;;
- : (int * int) list = [(3, 14); (2, 25); (1, 36)]

It could definitely be done in other ways (as well as optimised), but I vaguely remember going with this simply because of it keeping the projected numbers slightly “balanced”.

Finally, we put this together to obtain:

let eval stmt =
    let unb_guess_ids = get_unbounded_guesses stmt in
    if (List.length unb_guess_ids) > 0 then
        let projector = project (List.length unb_guess_ids) in
        let rec helper number = 
            let projection = projector number in
            let guesses = List.combine unb_guess_ids projection in
            let result = eval_stmt [] guesses stmt in
            match result with
                None ->
                    helper (number + 1)
                | Some(_) ->
                    result
        in
        helper 0
    else
        eval_stmt [] [] stmt

that will indeed find a solution to the example programme from above!

 

While this is now a working interpreter, it does have its shortcomings when used without any kind of static analysis thrown in. For example, on programme:

guess x in
reject

the interpreter will enter an infinite loop, despite the fact that the programme obviously doesn’t have any solutions. Fixing this will be the topic of the next post.

Film #11


Warning: A non-numeric value encountered in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-includes/SimplePie/Parse/Date.php on line 694

Warning: preg_match() [function.preg-match]: Compilation failed: invalid range in character class at offset 4 in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 1384

Warning: preg_match_all() [function.preg-match-all]: Compilation failed: invalid range in character class at offset 4 in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 700

Warning: Invalid argument supplied for foreach() in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 707

Warning: preg_match_all() [function.preg-match-all]: Compilation failed: invalid range in character class at offset 4 in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 700

Warning: Invalid argument supplied for foreach() in /var/www/mortendahl.dk/public_html/blog/wp-content/plugins/lightbox-plus/classes/shd.class.php on line 707

Before Christmas I developed the latest black & white film, yet didn’t have time to scan it before going to my family for the holidays. Now it’s here, and the most interestingly thing is perhaps that for post-processing I’ve tried to go in a direction of what I heard described as having “European rich shadows“.

So what does it mean? Well, I’m still finding out, but believe I can see some of what is meant in the photos by Doisneau, Cartier-Bresson, Brassaï, Ronis, and my most recent discovery, Peter Turnley: during scanning and post-processing I didn’t lift the shadows as much as usual while focused on still keeping a lot of detail in them. Of the photos below it worked out best for Under the Bridge and Japanese Chef, and to a smaller extend for Idou:

It is tricky no doubt, and I’m starting to understand why they said that being a good printer — the person, not the machine — is an art form in itself.